ARCHITECTURAL MODELLING

ARCHITECTURAL MODELLING: AN ILLUSTRATION OF BUILDINGS IN THREE DIMENSIONS.

BY

                           *AYENI D.A, TAIWO F.M, AND FALAYE T.A

 DEPT OF ARCHITECTURE,

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE

INTRODUCTION

            The presentation of an architects/designer’s work to clients and other interested members of the public is germane to the overall ratings of such designer/architect vis-à-vis the proposed building/structure right from its inception.

            It is generally believed and a known fact that written or spoken words alone can hardly explain the concept, visuals and expertise of an architect. This explains why architects, designers, draughtsmen, delineators employ a universal language of drawings or graphics to clearly express his latent ideas, dreams on a particular proposal for his client(s). More often than not, pictures or pictorial representations are easily captured, acknowledged and are better appreciated because they form images in the minds of the viewers/clients instanta than mere rhetoric. These graphical universal languages are in the form of designs-shapes, sizes perspectives, models among others.

            Models and the art of modeling in architectural designs is one of the major medium by which an architect expresses himself in clearer terms in addition to other modes of presentations earlier mentioned. In essence, models are veritable medium of conveying or explaining construction details, designs illustrations and its functionality to the audience. Thus with modicum of expertise - training while in school and experience, an architect wins the heart of his clients with well conceived drawings backed up with a neatly constructed model of such drawings.

            The word model is coined from the word mode. The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary described model as “a particular style or fashion to narrate a well conceived object or something through a well-thought-out, planned, illustrative medium especially in the work of arts, designs among others”. Similarly it defined designs as “the art or process of deciding how an object will look like when completed”.

            Martin (1970) defines models as “a simple description of a system used to explain the workability of an entity upon implementation”. The essence of any design as conceptualized by an architect is to convey a practical message in the hearts of an audience. Designs are therefore complemented in achieving this by model building.

            Modeling is the art or process of engaging in model building with a view to make a simple caricature of realities of a particular system as mooted by the designer. For instance, model building in architectural practice is an art of making a pictorial presentation of a proposal as “dreamt” by the architect. Martin (1970), describes architectural model as a three-dimensional representation of the design of a building which can be made to include the shapes and detailed appearance of its immediate surroundings”. The use of architectural models has gained an appreciable prominence in recent times as an addition to presentation of working drawings. This explains why students of architecture are being trained the skills and rudiment of architectural modeling so as to make them be responsive to the future challenges of the practice of this profession.

            In preparing this paper, the interest of the authors is stirred to tackle these set objectives among others;

(1)    To make case for the inclusion of model making in the curriculum design of architectural training in our schools and colleges.

(2)   To stimulate, educate and arouse the interest of students of architectural education as well as practitioners on various areas in which the skills of model building can be applied.

(3)   To encourage students the culture of building architectural models towards enhancing clients satisfaction; and

(4)   To promote the attitude of self-employment and economic sustainability through the mastery of model buildings.

MODEL TYPES

Models are in different forms, which is a function of the scope of client’s instructions or job given.

This can be categorized as follows;

(1)   Architectural/Aesthetics Models

(2)   Structural Models

(3)   Site Models

(4)   Landscape Models

(5)   Urban Design/Planning Models

Architectural/Aesthetics models basically comprises of the external details of the building (i.e. the external windows and doors together with the shape of the roof). In some cases, partial or full detail of the surroundings may be shown depending on the scale of model and type of building. This type of model is usually in scales 1:200, 1:150, & 1:100.

Structural/working models are usually used to explain details of roof structure especially how the roofing members may be put together. A simple gable or hipped roof is made up of roofing members like purlins, rafters, tie beams, wall plates and struts arranged and specified by the engineer or architect. This type of model is usually required where the need to give details of complex component(s) becomes necessary. These are normally put on scale 1:50, 1:20, or as appropriate and more often detachable.

Site models goes beyond the existence of the proposed or existing physical buildings on a particular site to include the entire property boundary plus all the envisaged proposals within the confines of the property boundary. It will exhibit circulation, perimeter fence wall, landscape designs, other external works/paving, e.t.c.

Landscape models emphasize the landscape design of the project. Thus more consideration is given to the trees, shrubs, river courses, paved ways, gardens, with the proposed building/structures in blocks ore detailed models. The contours must also be shown on the models.

Urban Design/Planning models are models prepared to accompany master plans of towns, cities or regions. They are to show the circulation (roads, streets, and footpaths), flora, aquatic points/courses, natural/man-made features among others. The presence of the contours on the appropriate levels is important, while the existing/proposed building may be shown in blocks.

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS AND PROCESSES OF ARCHITECTURAL BUILDING MODELING.

Model building is a process that entails both science and art. For a model to have significant impact, the rudiments of drawings which the basis of appreciable artistic/pictorial translations into an appreciable entities. There are certain basic factors           which must be taken into cognizance before embarking on the process of model building, i.e. the purpose it is intended to serve. This is because model building is seen as a result oriented and impactful. These include;

a)      Enhancement to construction

b)      Project presentation to the public

c)      Supportive of working drawings to canvass for a job, and

d)     Aesthetics/ beauty

However, the process required for all projects irrespective of the purpose, magnitude, type and location may follow these stages;

Stage 1- preparation of preliminary architectural design of the project based on clients’ brief;

Stage 2- reduction of the working drawings to an appropriate scale;

Stage 3- procurement of the necessary equipment, tools, and materials;

Stage 4- construction of the model;

Stage 5- rendering/finishes;

Stage 6- construction of other external works e.g. landscaping;

Stage 7- evaluation of the model;

Stage 8- presentation;

BASIC EQUIPMENT/TOOLS FOR BUILDING ARCHITECTURAL MODELS

            The following instruments are necessary to assist in building architectural models; viz; drawing boards, tee-square, set-square, scale rule, compass, pencil, eraser, French curves,and technical pens, Others are blade, cutting knife,/marked knife, circle cutter, modeling board, particle boards, saw-dust, markers, glue,  gum,  textured cardboards, masking tape, steel rule among others.

JUSTIFICATION FOR MODEL BUILDING IN ARCHITECTURE

The importance of model building in architecture practice as a mode of displaying buildings in three-dimensional forms can not be de-emphasized. Architectural models can best be described as ‘building before the building’ as the building is depicted in concise form ever before the foundation-laying of the real project is done. This is achieved through concept illustration, detailing of the building components, exhibiting the functionality and the inter-relationship of the building elements and space provisions/standards in the design.

            Consequently, there is no doubt that the services of trained architects became imperative in all societies - be it developed, developing or third world nations - for physical developments. However, it is pertinent to note that, not all the trained architects could be absorbed in the public service or the existing practicing firms for employment. Thus the need for diversification and specialization in model building as a means of enhancing self-employment in a developing economy like Nigeria should be promoted. Therefore, if accorded, priorities in our schools/colleges will provide succor for young graduates of architecture as poverty would be alleviated substantially both on the short and long runs.

THE NEED FOR INCLUSION OF MODEL BUILDING IN ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Architecture as a profession is dynamic, futuristic and result based. It responds positively to environmental needs and changes, especially in these contemporary societies. Thus, in order to achieve the idea of human resources capacity building that will make same more responsive to the unfolding socio-economic scenario, the need to review and emphasize model building in architectural education curriculum development became necessary.

In pursuance of this, the relevant committee responsible for educational development/ training of this profession is admonished to be saddled with this arduous task with inputs from all stakeholders.

TECHNIQUES OF MODEL BUILDING

            There is how to every art or process. The process of building architectural models requires skills to be acquired through training in schools/colleges accredited to do so in Nigeria. Similarly the making and presentation of architectural models should be accompanied by a brief technical report. The report in the main should highlight and emphasize the basic information that will make the project appeal to the client/reader since the architect will not always be around after presentation/delivery of jobs.

RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

            There is much to be achieved by students and practitioners of architecture if architectural modeling is given prominence in the education and training of the profession. As part of capacity building, the curriculum to be designed should be made mandatory to students with high credit units. No doubt, the society/nation stands to gain tremendously over time from this practice.

REFERENCES

Falade, J.B & Oduwaye L. (1998) - Essentials of landscape and site planning.

                                                           Omega Hi-Tech information and planning systems ltd, Lagos.         

Hornby A.S. (2001) – Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of current English. 6^th Edition,

                                   Oxford University Press London.

Keeble, Lewis (1969) - Principles and practice of Town and Country planning.

                                      The Estates gazette Ltd, London.

Martin Lesle C. (1970) – Architectural Graphics Standards 2^nd Edition.

                                         Collier Macmillan Publishers, London.

THE STATE OF THE ENABLING LAWS AS IT RELATE TO THE ENVIRONMENT

 THE STATE OF THE ENABLING LAWS AS IT RELATE TO THE ENVIRONMENTBY  ARC. A.O. OBABORI, MNIA, MNITP, MAARCHESDEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTUREAMBROSE ALLI UNIVERSITY,EKPOMA - NIGERIA  ARC. M. O. OGUNRAYEWA, MNIA, MAARCHESDEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTUREUNIVERSITY OF JOS,JOS - NIGERIA  BARR. ADEKANLE,JURISPRUDENCE & INTERNATIONAL LAWFACULTY OF LAWAMBROSE ALLI UNIVERSITYEKPOMA - NIGERIA

The state of the Enabling Laws as it relates to the  environment

Keywords: Environmental Impact  Assessment; Environmental matters;               Environmental   Standard; Pollution; Sustainable Development

 Abstract

 There are wide range of environmental issues and  problems to be resolved  and tackled by he system of our education and policy makers. Amongst such problems are desertification which is a global threat posed by climate change and the loss of biodiversity.. Also visible are  waste managment problems, oil pollution, environmental degradation, soil erosion. over grazing and bush burning. Increasing acidity witnessed in fertile land areas from which the people derived sustenance through farming and other economic activities are source of concern. This is what inform submissions in area of  water quality, Effluent limitation, Air quality, Ozone protection, Noise control, Discharge of hazardous substance. Selected  cases and proceedings in decided cases are cited as source of results which form the basis for decisions. Highlight of suggestions points to the need to develop a more environmentally and socially equitable approaches to environmental managment in  Nigeria. The concept should be embraced by all  educational Institution  and reflected in their  curriculum. There is importance for regeneration and

 redevelopment of the environment. A more formidable  method should exist in  considering destruction by  individuals and negligence of corporate  organisation within and outside the court. Strategic  policy plan should be worked out to determine  associated loss of human  welfare and implement  functional financial and Institutional mechanism to  assimilate these losses (ie Insurance and Banking  Sectors Options). The review of the environmental  Law should be done  to meet today's need.

THE STATE OF THE ENABLING LAWS AS IT RELATES TO ENVIRONMENT

INTRODUCTION

There are laws that govern activities of man generally. Environmental matters are regulated by both International and Municipal laws. Exploration activities notably resulting into oil spillage and damage to terrestrial life have to be addressed.

Industrial accidents have led to widespread poisoning with dire consequences to human lives. Thus, the leakage of poisonous gases at a pesticide plant in Bhopal, India in 1984 sent a cloud of metal isocyanate gas across the city. Two thousand people died within hours and over a thousand more died in four years. Over 200,000 were injured.

New substances are being created and their effect on human life is not fully known, chemicals is being subjected to International standards for their use and control.

Mining of tin in Jos under open-cast method has left the land degraded. The sea is polluted by wastes from chemicals as well as oil from ship. Mining accidents offshore or onshore, pollute both the land and the seas with harmful effects on animals and vegetation. It has been noticed that industrialized countries disposed of chemical toxic wastes in developing countries in shady deals with capricious or ignorant leaders or individuals. The dumping of toxic waste in Koko, Delta State of Nigeria in June, 1988 prompted the need to protect the shores of the country.

Overgrazing and over-cultivation could result into hazards to the environment.

States are under customary law obliged to use or utilize their property in such a way as not to impede other states enjoyment of their own property sic utere tuo ut alienum non leadas.

In an attempt to solve environmental problems globally there have been bilateral and multilateral arrangements to deal with specific aspects of pollution. The conference held in Stockholm in 1972 was the first International attempt. The thrust of agreement was based on the tuo utere rule in principle 21: that states in accordance with the charter of the United Nations and the principles of International law “the sovereign right to explore their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other states or of area beyond the limits of national jurisdiction”.

Umozurike further stressed that “the state has responsibility to protect and improve the environment for the present and future generations to maintain the ecosystem and prevent environmental pollution and release public information on harmful or potentially harmful pollutants”

In 1972 there was the establishment of the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) with a governing council of fifty-eight member states, an environmental coordination Board and a small secretariat based in Nairobi. Relying on previous conventions and uptill 1982 UN convention on the law of the sea deals with the broad aspects of marine protection and the legislative and enforcement competence of literal states. Other treaties that came to focus are: The International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in cases of Oil Pollution casualties 1969; International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage 1969, Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matters 1972; International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ships 1973 and so on.

The resultant effect of National Policy on Environment was the promulgation of the Federal Environmental Protection Agency Act No. 58 of 1998. The statutory responsibility of the agency is to protect the Nigeria environment. The structure or functions and power of the agency shall be examined in line with the performance recorded in recent times.

AN OVERVIEW OF THE FEDERAL ENVIRONMENTAL PRO-TECTION AGENCY ACT NO. 58 OF 1998

Section 5 of the FEPA Act enumerated the functions of the agency. The Agency shall, subject to this Act, have responsibility for the protection and development of the environment and biodiversity conservation and sustainable development of Nigeria’s natural resources in general and environmental technology, including initiating policy in relation to environmental research and technology: and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing it shall be the duty of the Agency to:

-           prepare a comprehensive national policy for the protection of the environment and conservation of natural resources, including procedure for environmental impact assessment for all development projects;

-           Prepare in accordance with the National Policy on the Environment, periodic master plans for the development of environmental science and technology and advise the Federal Government on the financial requirements for the implementation of such plans:

          Advise:

(i)       The federal government on national environmental policies and priorities, the conservation of natural resources and sustainable development and scientific and technological activities affecting the environment and natural resources.

(ii)      The President on the utilization of the one percent Ecological fund for the protection of the environment:

promote cooperation in environmental science and conservation technology with similar bodies in other countries and with international bodies connected with the protection of the environment and the conservation of natural resources:

cooperate with federal and state ministries, local governments, statutory bodies and research agencies on matters and facilities relating to the protection of the environment and the conservation of natural resources and

Carryout such other activities as are necessary or expedient for the full discharge of the functions of the Agency under this Act.

For these highlighted functions to be performed Section 6 of this Act which deals with powers of the Agency to give grant stated some of the conditions that private and public sectors can exploit to achieve their objectives. Section 7 and 23 on removal method etc also granted the president power to give directions on matters relating to the performance by the Agency of its function and it is, the duty of the agencies to comply. The conscious effort at protecting and developing the environment can not be assessed properly due to the fact that there are a lot of problems that needed attention seriously that bother on environment.

The aspect of the environment that deals with construction and its impact to control possible excesses of the developers. Section 33 of the Nigerian Urban and Regional Planning Act No. 88 of 1992 states that “A developer shall at the time of submitting his application for development submit to an appropriate control Department a detailed environmental impact statement for an application for:

(a)      a residential land in excess of 2 hectares or

(b)     permission to build or expand a factory or for the construction of an office building in excess of four floors or 5,000 square meters of a lettable space or

(c)      permission for a major recreational development”

Human activities especially development projects have both negative and positive impact on the environment which negate the essence of control by appropriate authorities and agencies.

The seach light of our educational system should be beam towards the current trend in the environment. Architectural design/Study should respond to the changing environment e.g erosion, land slide, earth quakes and other forms of disesters. The turning around of the negative impact of the environment and  assessing all developmetal projects in view of achieving maintenance, restoration, preservation, protection and conservation should be addressed to create a new avenue to meet growing demand in our decay environment. The information technology system should integrated into our educational system and we should  take advantage of benefits accrue from it.

          It is an attempt to achieve this laudable environmental goal, that some countries of the world enacted legislation requiring Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on prospective major developments and Environmental Audit Report (EAR) in respect of existing projects which is discussed briefly here under.

Environmental Impact Assessment is the study of the likely environmental impact of a proposed project finding ways and means to prevent, mitigate or compensate for unacceptable impact and making development responsive to their local environment and presenting the predictions and options to decision makers. It is a planning and Management tool used by officials and managers who formulate policies and take important decisions about development projects; to ensure that a balance is struck between development and environmental protection.

Here lies the relationship and the significance of EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) as a strong essential tool or instrument for sustainable development for an enhanced and pollution free environment.

The Act in its Part II stated the National Environmental Standards which touches on water quality, effluent limitation, air quality and atmospheric protection, ozone protection, noise control, spillers liability within section 16 and 22. The Act establish guidelines, specification and standard to enhance the quality of the Nigeria’s environment.

WATER QUALITY

It is within the ambit of the agency to recommend to the president the purpose of establishing water quality standards for the inner state waters of Nigeria to protect the public health or welfare and enhance the quality of water to serve the purpose in the provision. The agency shall consider the supply of public water propagation of fish and wildlife recreational pursuance, agricultural, industrial and other legitimate uses. It shall establish different water quality standards for different uses. This is in respect of various sources of water that are available which are subject to pollution.

The environmental standards can be found in S.15 through S. 20 of the Act. Having considered water quality; the next one is effluent limitation.

EFFLUENT LIMITATION

The agency shall as soon as possible after the commencement of this Act establish effluent limitations for new point sources which shall require application of the Best Available Technology (BAT) currently available and implementation of the best management practices.

The Agency shall as soon as possible after the commencement of this Act establish effluent limitation for existing point sources which shall require the application of the management practices under circumstances as determined by the Agency and available schedules of compliance for installation and operation of the best practicable technology as determined by the Agency.

The performance level of FEPA in this respect is being subjected to questions. One problem with this regulation is who determine or what constitute “BAT” (best Available Technology). It is the responsibility of FEPA, the  Agency had trained inspectors and scientist who are staff in the inspectorate division who are sufficiently equipped on this matter. There are recorded cases of textile industry in Lagos state discharging waste water containing dyes flowing into streets and adjoining streets in the immediate neighbourhood where such factories are sited.

Human wastes are sometimes deposited into water bodies and dangerous chemicals which could greatly impair the health of those living in the area. The acceptable level of oil and grease content in brine and other production wastes is 10mg/litres for discharge into inland waters.

Offenders are to pay a fine of N20,000, two years imprisonment or both. For a corporation the fine is N50,000. With effluent standard in place care should be taken to protect surface water since such water serves many of the communities for drinking and other domestic purposes.

AIR QUALITY

According to Section 17 of the Act “the Agency shall establish more criteria, guidelines, specification and standards for air quality and enhance the quality of Nigeria’s air resources so as to promote the public good, welfare and the normal development and productive capacity of the nation’s human, animal or plant life and include in particular.

(a)      Minimum essential air quality standards for human, animal or plant health;

(b)     The control of concentration of substances in the air which separate and in combination are likely to result in damage or deterioration of property, human, animal or plant health.

(c)      The most appropriate means to prevent and combat various form of atmospheric pollution.

(d)     Controls for atmospheric pollution originating from energy sources that is produced by aircraft and other self-propelled vehicles and in built power generation stations.

(e)      Standards applicable to emission from any new mobile source where Agency’s judgment causes or contributes to air pollution which may be anticipated to endanger public health or welfares and

(f)       The use of appropriate means to reduce emission to permissible level.

(g)      The Agency may establish monitoring stations or networks to locate where exist atmospheric pollution and determine their actual or potential danger.

It is usual nowadays to find motor vehicles motor cycles and even electricity generators emitting obnoxious fumes such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide etc into the atmosphere without any form of control. Bush burning have also contributed to pollution of the air. This has led to depleting of the forest resources. Emission from industries also constitute a serious health problems because of indiscriminate citing of industries in residential area.

OZONE PROTECTION

Section 19 of the Act sub section (1) states that “the Agency shall undertake to study data and recognize developmental operational force and other countries regarding the cumulative effect of all substance notices, processes and activities which may affect the stratosphere, especially human activities on stratosphere.

(2)     The Agency may make recommendations and programmes for the general public, substance, practice, process or activity which may reasonably be anticipated to affect stratosphere especially ozone in the stratosphere when such effect may occur and as anticipated to endanger public health or welfare.

(3)     For the purpose of this section “stratosphere” means that part of the atmosphere above the troposphere.”

Kyoto accord was organized in order to address the problems emanating from the ozone depletion which is a global affair to help reduce green house effect and other related emission which causes climatic related problems amongst them are global warming, skin burn diseases etc.

NOISE CONTROL

The provision of the Act in respect of noise control in Section 20 which states that:

(1)      The Agency shall, as soon as practicable after the commencement of the Act and with consultation with appropriate authorities:

(a)      Identify major noise sources, noise criteria and noise control technology

(b)     Establish such noise abatement programmes and noise emission scheme and may determine necessary to preserve and maintain public health of the people.

(2)      Any noise criteria identified under this section shall reflect the scientific edge most useful in indicating the kind and extent of all identifiable effects in the health or welfare which may be expected from differing qualities and quantities of noise.

(3)      The Agency shall make recommendation to control noise originating from industrial, commercial, domestic, sports, recreational, transportation or other related activities.

For quite some time now especially before the enactment of the FEPA Act. The level of acceptable noise have not been standardized. The Civil Aviation Act is also silent on this matter. Commercial record players, religious bodies, public address systems, industrial plants, electricity power generating plants have been the sources of noise and fumes.

FEPA in its guidelines and standards for environmental pollution control in Nigeria as it relate to noise. According to the guidelines the recommended daily noise exposure for workers should not exceed 90 decibels, dB(A) daily for an 8 hours working period. Also available is the noise exposure limit for other periods.

DISCHARGE OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE

The discharge of such harmful quantities of any hazardous substance into air or upon the land and the waters of Nigeria or adjoining shore lines, except as permitted or authorized by any law in force in Nigeria. Any defaulter will pay N100,000 fine or ten years imprisonment or both where the offence is committed by a corporate body the penalty is N500,000 and the additional fine of N1,000 for everyday the offence subsisted. Hazardous substance by FEPA means any material that poses a threat to human health and/or the environment. FEPA had severe limitations concerning the control of oil that reduced the Act efficacy in preventing oil pollution of water.

It is of note that the scope of FEPA and consequently its mandate were restricted to “waters of Nigeria” which are defined by the “Act” to mean all waters in any form which are (i) interstate (ii) in federal capital territory (iii) territorial waters of Nigeria (iv) within the exclusive economic zone (v) in any other area under the jurisdiction of the Nigerian Federal Government.

The extent at which this law is being obeyed is still being observed. This is because cases relating to the environment have not been common with the generality of the public. The enforcement mechanism still needs to be boosted with capacity to perform its role.

Haven considered certain aspect of the Act it is pertinent to mention that it is possible to enhance the short-coming of the Act by the provision of Section 40 which is on the “power to make regulations” “the Director-General may with the approval of the council, make regulation generally for the purposes of this Act and without prejudice to the generality of the public; the Director-General may in particular, prescribe standards for: (a) water quality (b) effluent limitations (c) air quality (d) atmospheric protection (e) ozone protection (f) noise control and (g) control of hazardous substances and removal control methods.

THE ENFORCEMENT POWER OF FEDERAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

For the agency to succeed in the performance of its functions, it is important to ascertain the powers vested in the agency. The Act provides that it shall be lawful for the Agency to:

(a)      Make grants to suitable authorities and bodies with similar function.

(b)     Collect and make available through publications and other appropriate means and in co-operation with public or private organisation basic scientific data and other information pertaining to pollution and environmental protection mark.

(c)      Establish, encourage and promote training programmes for its staff and other appropriate individuals for public or private organizations.

(d)     Establish such environmental criteria guidelines, specification or standard for the protection of the nations air and interstate water as may be necessary to protect the health and welfare of the population from environmental degradation.

The enabling Act is to protect the nations environment and conserve its natural resources. The Agency can only work within the frame work of the power vested in it. It is obvious that the power to execute the obligation of the Act have not been felt in totality. This is because there is extensive violation of the existing environmental law at local, state and national level. The consciousness of the Agency is being drawn to the fact that the Act is to be used in addressing arising problems that bothers on the environment. It has been observed that other bodies/agencies set                           up to exercise control over the environment have made activities of FEPA inconsistent and weak in respect of performance.

In furtherance and jurisdiction of the court for a court to decide a case, it must have jurisdiction over the parties and the subject matter of the case. Section 251 and 272 respectively of the 1999 constitution defines the jurisdictions of the Federal and State High courts. It is the Attorney-General of the federation and state counter part that can prosecute a case.

Apart from states and local government who prosecute violators of sanitation and public health laws, prosecution and convictions for environmental damage is yet unheard of. The reasons why the paucity of enforcement and prosecution of environmental offences according to A. Awogbade are:

(i)       The incipient statutes of environmental law and therefore the fact that it is yet to be fully understood by all players including enforcement agencies.

(ii)      The realization of the immense back-log of environmental           damage which makes the choice of culprit difficult.

(iii)     The realization of the enormity of the cost of compliance and remediation even when liability is established.

(iv)     The cross-sectional and trans-boundary nature of environmental hazards which renders apportionment difficult with the result that there is bound to be jurisdictional conflict among tiers and agencies of government, if prosecution were to be pursued.

(v)      The involvement of the state in large commercial activities and utilities whose activities invariably result in environmental damage.

(vi)     The inadequacies of the adjudicatory capacity, having regard to knowledge gap, lack of technology and scientific skills necessary to ensure successful prosecution.

(vii)    The “Nigeria factor” which creates a wide gap between diagnosis, prescription and care.

The afore mentioned factors inhibit prosecution of environment matters.

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION FOR THE ENVIRONMENT

The constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria recognizes the importance attached to the environment. Although the constitution is not elaborate on the general scope to be followed with the enactment of related environmental Act the area of concern will be viewed in a more broader way.

Section 20 of the 1999 constitution states that “the state shall protect and improve the environment, safeguard the water, air and land, forest and wild life of Nigeria”. The steps taken by various states government in area of environmental matter is being supported by the constitution. This has made it possible for states to operate on matters relating to environment. Also before the inception of the present democratic government in 1999 there have been state environmental protection bodies enacted by the Edicts.  The states that are already in the vanguard of environmental protection are Lagos State, Oyo State, Edo State, Delta State and Other States. The responsibilities at each level of government should be worked out to avoid conflict that may impede the realisation of the objective of achieving sustainable environment vis-à-vis constitutional exclusive legislative list and the concurrent list of the states.

RYLAND VS. FLETCHER RULE

The principles of Ryland v. Fletcher have been subject of reliance whenever issues that affect environment and notably nuisance and negligence is being mentioned. “There is the uphill task of establishing that damage or injury had occurred to the plaintiff as a result of the escape from the defendants land into the plaintiff’s land of something likely to cause mischief and that there was non-natural user of the defendant’s land. For instance in Edhemowe v. Shell B.P. Petroleum Company of Nigeria Ltd. the defendant company in the course of their petroleum operation dug a waste pit for the storage of oil. When the pit was full, more oil was dumped in it. This led to escape of oil from the waste pit to the plaintiffs land and his fishes died. In a suit against the defendant, it was held that the accommodation of crude oil in the waste pit is a “non-natural users” they were thereby held to be strictly liable. In Chief Otoko and Ors vs. Shell B.P, Petroleum Companies of Nigeria Ltd. It was held that by digging the pit and burying the crude oil unburnt, the defendant had gathered a non-natural user.

Identifying another limitation to this rule is statutory authority which is a complete defense to a claim brought under the rule. Thus in Ikpede vs. Shell B.P. Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd leakage of crude oil from defendant’s pipelines caused damages to the plaintiff’s fish swamp, it was held that the plaintiff could not recover under the rule and that even if all the requirements of the rule (i.e. Ryland vs. Fletcher) was met, the defendant could not be held liable under the rule since the act of laying pipe was done pursuant to a license issued under the oil pipeline Act. There is every indication that constraints inherent in the environmental legislation and the common law tort claims that some urgent steps needed to be taken to check this unfavourable development.

RECOMMENDATIONS

There is urgent need for environmental safety policy that would guide the people, the government and the oil company operating in the country. All categories of mineral exploitation and pollution generating activities should be inclusive.

The development in Lagos State should be encouraged in all states of the federation. At state level Lagos State Ministry of Environment and the Lagos State Environmental Protection Agency (LASEPA) have been directed as from April 1, 2005 to embark on an awareness campaign against air and noise pollution, areas which had hitherto been largely ignored. The effort will focus essentially on control of fumes from private electricity generators a situation that officials say has become a major threat to friendly air in Lagos.

The clean air bill can be prepared to address air polluted issue which should cut across all sphere of life. This has already been introduced by the United States of America.

Some workers in the Industrial sector have been informed of the acceptable level of noise according to standard. The noise standard for all other sectors should be introduced and at the same time enforcement procedure enhanced.

Amendment of the act and other laws which relate to environment may be necessary to give it proper impetus. Review and proper machinery for enforcement will not be out of place where it is desirable. The need to protect and sustain the environment should be brought into the notice of all and sundry through wide range of information technology applicable in each circumstance. An Institution  already established to handle environmental issues should be strenghten and funded to perform effectively.

CONCLUSION

There is growing need for environmental protection and applicable laws to stem the consequences of human activities. The World Banks Operational Policy on Economic, Evaluation of Investment operations requires that project evaluations include all the costs and benefits generated by the project, including environmental costs and benefits. The degree to which environmental benefits are valued differs from sector to sector. The instrument of the law have to be framed for the use of environmental valuation as additional measure to secure the safety of the environment.

REFERENCES

1. Awogbade, A. (1988) Environmental Law and policy (eds) by Simpson and Fagbohun

2. Homes and Property (2006) How "Desertification of commitment" is worsening Nigeria environment in                                       The  Guardian; Vol. 22, No 10,069,  June 19, P. 39

3. The Federal Government Press (1988) Federal Environmental Protection Agency Act. Cap 165, Law of                                    the  Federation.

4. The Federal Government Press (1992) Nigeria Urban and Regional Planning Act. The Federal                                                  Government Press, Lagos, Nigeria

5. Umozurike, U. O. (2005) Introduction to International Law, Spectrum Books Limited, Ibadan, pp. 252-259

PRE-EMPTIVE MANAGEMENT OF THE POWER AND POLITICAL POTENTIALITIES OF CADD FOR PROFESSIONAL SUSTAINABILITY.

ABSTRACT

Considering the breadth, depth and intensity of influence that ICT commands barely six hundred months after the installation of the first business computer, this device is powerful. Apart from the capabilities of its hardware; various software has altered every aspect of human endeavour. In the building industry, the C++ written object-oriented CADD software (like AutoCAD) automated the traditional graphic communication and empowered the architect to express himself better in three dimensions. However, the introduction of Building Information Modelling; a new CADD concept has further aggravated the potentialities of Computer Aided Drafting and Design. With BIM the traditional master builder role of the architect is quite possible theoretically. Power implies the unfolding of new possibilities. Power is about people and hence has political and sociological implications. Power must be managed in order to avoid the domination of a political system by a single group or person. Hence, the evolving power of CADD and its implied potentialities must be pre-emptively managed deliberately in order to avoid an inevitable power politics among professionals in the building industry in the nearest future. This paper examines the implications of these and the challenge they pose for architectural education and practice in the twenty first century.

Key Words: CADD, Management, Power, Technology, Values.

 INTRODUCTION.

Technology has always intrinsically been an agent of societal change. Sometimes those changes are epochal due to their revolutionary dimensions. Considering the breadth, depth and intensity of influence that ICT commands barely six hundred months after the installation of the first business computer in Kentucky; the computer is simply powerful. Computer technology and consequently, Information and communication technology (ICT) has developed steadily until it stands to control and change practically every area of human life. Amazingly, the rate and trend of development suggest that this is a tip of an expanding iceberg.

TECHNOLOGY.

Roy (1978:14) quoted by Gummet and Johnston (1979:9) distinguished three general types of technology: “…technology as a body of organised knowledge; as the products of organised knowledge; and as the activity of applying organised knowledge.” Hence, technology goes beyond physical and social hardware, but it is “…a force which permeates our political, economic and social systems.” (Gummet and Johnston, 1979:9) In fact sometimes it instigates new socio-economic, political and cultural systems which further create an impetus for Research and Development that can birth another cycle of new technologies. The building industry as a technological system that is composed of professionals who carry out activities 

that apply organised knowledge has been influenced by the forces of the products of organised knowledge in form of ICT.

TECHNOLOGICAL POSSIBILITIES OR SUSTAINABILITY?

Technology is not exclusively a modern phenomenon; neither is the call for technology to be directed to what can “…be regarded as socially useful ends”. (Gummet and Johnston, 1979:9) From time immemorial, the concept of political power has always been closely knit with technology. Societies have always had to choose between technological proliferation, economic benefits and human welfare. In modern times, these calls echo in the campaign for appropriate technology, Quality function deployment, lean, sustainable development and recently, the Millennium Development Goals.  It has always been a choice between power or people extremes. However, sustainability is the mid-line of balance.

Although the original idea of sustainability was applied to ecological issues, it has been extended to almost all areas of human endeavour. Brundtland Commission quoted by Dalal-Clayton (2003) defined sustainability as “a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations”.  The increasing power, resourcefulness, potentialities and scope of influence of ICT calls for a pre-emptive management of this technology for a sustainable professional milieu in the building industry.

THE TECHNOLOGY OF CADD AND BIM.

In the building industry, the relevance of computer technology to architecture became more direct with the advent of Computer Aided Drafting and Design (CADD) technology. The building industry in general and architecture in particular which evolved from on-site design in scale 1:1 to the drawing board communicates  building construction information through traditional graphic drawings with notes, schedules and specifications. These drawings are a composition of analogues in form of conventional symbols that are graphic abstractions of objects in reality.

Earlier CADD technology based on C++ written object-oriented software (like AutoCAD) used a general concept of objects to create basic drawing symbols such as lines and arcs. Thus, it merely automated the process of traditional draughtsmanship. “Using the same drawing legacy, a replica of what could have been drawn by hand was created using the computer as a drafting system. This makes AutoCAD drawings a mere collection of basic drawing primitives”. (Ibrahim M. et al 2003). In spite of its many advantages (which include ability to rapidly generate 3D images from different points of views, the possibility of creating motion simulation and walk-through animations as well as the ability to readily move the observer’s station point to any coordinate with the resulting view immediately generated) earlier CADD software were able to handle and manage information about a building only on a limited basis.

The introduction of a new CADD concept; Building Information Model (BIM) has created even greater possibilities. The BIM generation of CADD systems, introduced a new concept of objects in the cyberspace. These objects have an equivalent physical meaning to real world objects, and provide an abstract computer representation of the physical world that is convenient for architects (Ruppel, Meissner, and Bernd M 1993). Just like in word processing software, text and the grammatical implications of their relative positions are programmed to ‘see’ themselves as text and query wrong positioning, a door in a BIM software ‘knows’ what it is, how to behave as the elements they represent and how to interact with other elements in the building represented by other BIM entities. BIM stores and manages object information as databases which describe complete details about the object being represented like geometry, materials, specifications, code requirements, assembly procedure, price, manufacturer, vendor and any other related data associated with how the object is actually used. Any changes done to the building database will simultaneously be reflected in the entire set of documents the architect is responsible for: plans, elevations, sections, schedules, and bill of materials”. (Ibrahim Magdy et al 2003). 

New developments in BIM research will create new capabilities which should include all types of engineering analysis. “…A beam as an object should set its depth according to the span it covers, and change accordingly as the span changes. Although such intelligent behaviour has not been implemented yet in current CAD programs, it is this type of development that will be expected in the future. Another example, a door object should set its fire rating automatically according to the room where it belongs depending on its knowledge of this room’s function and the code requirements for this function. Theoretically, this is an achievable task, and should enhance quality control in all phases of the project”. (Ibrahim M. et al 2003).

Researches towards future developments are even very ambitious. These developments are challenging the nature of design information and the very way they had been stored and used in the past especially as the fourth dimension of time is added to BIM capabilities. “In 4D, BIM will provide object- and process-oriented building information from project drawings to decommissioning continuously over time. As just one example, data generated during design and construction will be reused and adapted throughout the life of a building to guide maintenance and repair activities”.(Hall, Dennis 2006) These developments will definitely change the terrain of the building industry in the years to come wherein roles must inevitably be re-defined.

POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY.

• The power and potentials of CADD especially, the paradigm shift in accepting almost instantaneous feedback of digital models has made the traditional master builder role of the architect quite possible theoretically.
• Since the building design is originated by the architect, further development of BIM will definitely intensify power concentration in the hands of the architect as his ability to give complete building information without resort to other professionals in the building industry increases. This calls for pre-emptive and deliberate power management in the building industry in order to avoid an inevitable power politics among professionals in the nearest future.
• Since every professional in the building industry are consumers of software, it presents a situation where absolute power concentration resides in the software producers who create the cyber environment which becomes the limits of what the professionals can do. This further presents a possibility of creating software that can even bypass the architect.  This possibility exists as a potentiality.

POWER MANAGEMENT.

Power concentration creates a situation that calls for urgent negotiation, resistance, or attack. Where all these are not available as options or are futile, then passive or active submission occurs. The potentialities in the building industry created by software calls for inter disciplinary round table forum to discuss new professional ethics, distribution of authority and responsibilities etc in the face of new possibilities. Needless to say that there is need for collaboration.

There seem to be two available options for professionals in the building industry in the current milieu: firstly, the option of creative collaboration that is committed to balancing between professional survival and current expediency towards achieving optimum service delivery and secondly, the option of ‘individual’ political power play among professionals in the building industry towards preserving the political and economic interest of each profession. The option of controlling the influx of BIM into the professional climate of the Nigerian building industry is unrealistic, defeatist but at best posthumous in a rapidly globalising industry.

In order to effectively manage the economy of power created in the building industry by software development, certain questions must be answered some of which are:

(i)           What is the current level of patronage of BIM, and what is its performance like?

There is evidence that government establishment and the private sector are adopting CADD as a baseline of professional practice. However, there is an increased preference for BIM software like ArchiCAD, Vector works, Architectural desktop…in the private sector of the Nigerian building industry. There is need for research into how effective the adoption of these software has been in the Nigerian context.

(ii)               Who will be responsible for the management of BIM?

Should government be responsible for the management of the adoption of BIM of future software development or should it be an entirely stakeholders affair? There is need for collaboration on both levels through a bottom-up approach that would involve round table discussions between representatives of various professional institutes as well as consortia and partnerships that are on the cutting edge of digitalised practice as well as clients and contractors. This should facilitate the adoption of indigenously generated systems and standards that are relevant to our professional, socio-economic, cultural and political realities. The government can then adopt and enforce such bottom-up generated policies. Proactive collaboration between architects in practice and the architectural intelligentsia should enhance and enrich the process.

(iii)             How will the industry need to change to accommodate BIM?

We should not just adopt the successful systems of the so-called developed countries. There is need to contextualise BIM to the peculiarities of Nigerian building industry and the society. Nyerere quoted by Thompson (1981) argued that the “…first problem we have not solved is that of building sufficient self-confidence to refuse what we regard as the world’s best… and to choose instead the most appropriate for our conditions”. Whitaker (1970:12) suggested six possible directions of societal change that can take place in the face of the agents of modernisation:

a)     Total rejection of modernity and total retention of tradition.

b)     Total acceptance of modernity and total displacement of tradition.

c)      Partial acceptance of modernity and partial retention of tradition.

d)     Partial rejection of modernity and total retention of tradition.

e)      Total acceptance of modernity and partial displacement of tradition.

f)       Total acceptance of modernity and total retention of tradition.

Essentially, no one can predict the details of what the effect of BIM adoption will be, but there is need for a proactive, collaborative and pre-emptive action that will eliminate unnecessary crisis.

POLITICAL ETHICS AND VALUES.

Power implies the unfolding of new possibilities. “Politics is about power. Power is about people...”(Margarch 1979:vii)  and hence has political and sociological implications. The popular adage that blames power as an agent of corruption is not entirely accurate. Power does not corrupt. Absolute power does not corrupt absolutely. If it does, then God (who has absolute power) must be the most corrupt being in the universe. This is absolutely contrary even to the most bizarre concept of God. Power is only a toll that increases the economy of possibilities available to those who posses power. Every tool and indeed, power as a tool is ethically and morally neutral. It merely takes on the character and values of its operator. Hence, political values are crucial to the management of the changes that software development poses to the Nigerian Construction industry. Responsibility, accountability and commitment to the sustainability of the built environment among other values are very crucial.

IMPLICATIONS FOR ARCHITECTURE EDUCATION.

Architecture education ought to prepare students that are industrially and socially relevant.  If it fails to do this, it will reduce personnel efficiency and the macroeconomic contribution of architecture to national economy. In this regard, the economical prudence of architectural education will be questioned.

The World Bank technique of cost-benefit analysis of educational investment considers “internal and external efficiency” of schools as a quantitative indicator of educational output. External efficiency is judged by the balance between social costs and social benefits while internal efficiency is judged by the balance between input and output within specific educational system or institution. Psacharopoulos G. and Woodhall M. (1997:23) stated that; “More specifically, the external efficiency of schools may be judged by how well schools prepare pupils and students for their roles in society….a school that was extremely efficient in developing skills and attitudes that are not highly valued in the society as a whole…would be judged to be…externally inefficient.”

These have implications at two levels. The architecture student of today must be conscious of his social responsibility in the midst of changing and developing technologies that empower him more than ever before. However, the concept of society is going beyond the geographical concept. The globalised business environment into which the student architect will enter may require him to work for clients that are geographically remote to him. Secondly, the student must be trained in the use of the latest relevant technologies. These pose a challenge of curriculum development for architectural education that will integrate current industry developments. Rather than reviewing the curriculum in response to rapid changes, a percentage of the curriculum can be allotted to interaction with industry based resource persons who are on the cutting edge of current practice.

Various limiting factors exist. The problem of acquisition of hardware and software due to exorbitant cost, the attitude of teachers to ICT and their level of proficiency in the software. Teachers should not be viewed, even if inadvertently, with the techno-induced mind-set that sees workers like dispensing machines or equipment on a production line where a job request is passed in and a predictable result within a predictable time comes out. Thomas, George F. (1978) described this concept when he stated that; “In the one perspective, …workers are expected to behave like cogs in a machine, that is, as essentially unthinking parts or elements in the total productive system,…” A teacher is a human being. He may “…to view innovation with suspicion to cling to the familiar ways which have seen him through his many difficulties, to resent any extra work which may be required of him probably without extra remuneration and to see proposals for change as a criticism of what he has been doing”.( Thompson 2001:161)

The cultural dimension of the effect of ICT on schools in general and architecture schools in particular is another challenge. Old ways of schooling will gradually be eroded by ICT revolution. Traditionally, “successful schooling requires one to adhere to a prescribed set of cultural content delivered through a narrowly defined curriculum. This traditional and narrowly defined curriculum is delivered to the individual by instructors who are responsible for inculcating the student with a set of norms that perpetuates the relationships among groups in the social system” (Bowles and Gintis, 1976). However, Carolan, (2001:11) highlights how this culture is being upset. “An unexpected by-product of this technological revolution has been the emergence of a generation of students weaned on multidimensional, interactive media sources, a generation whose understanding and expectations of the world differ profoundly from that of the generations preceding them. Examining the relationship between these generations, represented by the tensions among teachers, students, and content, will provide much insight into the way in which technology is impacting our larger structures.”

Should the traditional manual draughtsmanship be abolished in architecture schools? This is a very sensitive issue that requires a long range anticipation of the trends of the current ICT craze. Input devices that replicate the human hand like modified light pens could be adopted for now until the implications of the monopoly of the mouse are fully understood. Such a decision cannot be based on notions but on informed anticipation.

CONCLUSION.

The ongoing revolution in the building industry due to aggressive software development is potentially crisis laden. This crisis which is socio-economic, political and cultural in nature can be managed. The sustainability of the built environment of tomorrow is dependent on the actions or inactions of current professionals. Professional empowerment should be directed towards social benefits. This calls for proactive and collaborative action among stakeholders.

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