INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND ARCHITECTURE

ARCHITECTURE  AND   PLANNING AFTER  THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

After the changes associated with the Industrial Revolution, the amount of architectural knowledge that could be acquired only by academic study increased to the point where a complete synthesis became virtually impossible in a single volume of text book.

MODERN ARCHITECTURE

Influence of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution in the latter half of the 18th century brought the great influence to the world. The conspicuous examples that steel and glass by large-scale production had caused it. However, those "new" architecture brought a decline of beauty-standard we frequently see in large-scale production. Moreover, for being piled up the reason that bad working conditions by the industrialization, William Morris refused the industrialism and the capitalism, he began the Arts & Crafts Movement pursued their ideal in the Middle Ages, when he lived in the middle of the 19th century.
MOVEMENT
A movement in architecture known as Modernista originated in Barcelona during the last third of the 19th century
The movement was carried on by the Art Nouveau, a huge artistic movement centered around France and Belgium. This movement, means "New Art" in French, distinguished by organic and sensual curves, disagreed about inorganic matters. The marked example is Le Castel Beranger (H. Guimard).
Furthermore, some movement in various places could be given definitions of new artistic movements. The Expressionism in Germany (the Secession in Wien) or the Constructivism in Russia had begun because of the same ground refusing the capitalism and the industrialism, though the backgrounds which have caused them were different.


NEOCOLONIAL MOVEMENT
The Art Deco in the 1920's was pretty different from those movements. The Art Deco, given geometric shapes put straight and curve lines together to prominence, often adopted industrial matters, metal and glass. That made it possible that the low-priced mass production imitated their appearances. The Art Deco depended on mass production, spread over the world. However the geometric shapes in the Art Deco wasn't born from the pursuit of rationalism and the functionalism, charactaristics of industrialization, but rather decoration which was equally regarded as most important by the Art Nouveau.
The biggest recipient was the industrial power, the United States of America. Chrysler Building（W. Van Alen, Newyork, 1928） is one of the masterpieces of skyscrapers by the Art Deco.

THREE GREAT MASTERS

In the U.S. where the Art Deco is a general way, Frank Lloyd Wright (1867～1959) feared for the standardization of forms of architecture. Wright thought buildings must be organic, as accepted the industrialism and the rationalism, often used natural decorations. He is counted as one of the three great masters of archtiecture in 20th century. former Imperial Hotel (Inuyama, Aichi, 1922) is his masterpiece of buildings in Japan.
CRITICISM
Wright criticized the Art Deco for an inorganic aspect, but who criticized it for its decorative aspect was one of the same three great masters, Le Corbusier (1887～1965). His insistence was "a house is a machine to live in", he ignored the traditional style of architecture and he take rational functions very serious. His new style of architecture was established by Vill Savoye (Poissy, France, 1928). Then, the current of the times revolved not around Wright but around Corbusier. In addition, the piloti was his creation that liberated architecture from the earth and the tradition.
The last one of the three great masters was Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886～1969). Mies had the same insistance as Corbusier's as pursuit of rational functions. However as Corbusier ignored the traditional architecture, Mies adopted industrial matters for building materials. His buildings mainly composed by glass and steel was conducted various experiments. By his masterpiece Farnsworth House (the State of Illinois, the U.S. 1951), dividing walls were disappeared, excluded the concept of "room" and made the multipurpose space named "Universal Space". His achievements, the excluding preconceived ideas and creating coexistence of the industry and the art, was pretty great.

MODERNISM

The pursuit of functionalism and the fusion of the industry and the art was taken over and called Modernism. Specially, glass and steel office buildings like Mies' have spread over the world against socioeconomic backgrounds.
However, as Modernism was full of functions, it was reconsiderd in the latter half of the 1950's, because it was inorganic and uniformed. Then after, for the architects supported it Corbusier and Miese left this world one by one, the tendency became decisive.
At another hand, around the rapid technical innovations, thought called Structure Impressionalism has occured. The feature was that the structure tying building materials like "Shell" covered large space and create the space flowing and energetic
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, which began in England at about 1760, made radical changes in every level of civilization all over the world. The heavy industry growth brought a flood of new building materials, such as cast iron, steel, and glass, with which architects and engineers devised structures of unimaginable size, form, and function.
EFFECT ON PLANNING
In the second half of the 19th century dislocations brought about by the Industrial Revolution started to be overwhelming. Many were frightened by the hideous new urban districts of factories and workers' housing and the public taste of the newly rich. Architects were employed to build canals, tunnels, bridges, and railroad stations.
The Skyscraper which the architect Louis Sullivan designed, gave new meaning to the form of urban commercial buildings. His career evolved with the so-called Chicago School of Architecture. Their challenge was to build a skyscraper or high-rise building which was to be facilitated by the introduction of the electric elevator and massive abundance of steel. They made a great transition from the masonry walls to the steel frame. The building's skeleton could be constructed quickly and the rest of the building's remaining components could be hung on it to complete it, which was a great advantage for the high-rise buildings on busy city streets. Two of the most famous architects during the modern period are I.M Pei and Frank Lloyd Wright.
Reinforced concrete was the center of attention in France when Augusta Perret's apartment building, the Rue Franklin, and his Theatre des Champs-Elysees were built in France.
The Bauhaus school encouraged the modern movement to move along. It brought together architects, painters, and designers from many countries to set goals for the visual arts in the modern age.
International Style was started by the Bahaus architects and prevailed after the 1930s. The theory and practice of this style was introduced in the United States largely because of Philip C. Johnson's efforts.
Postmodern Architecture started when architects and critics between 1965 and 1980 said that there was no better style than postmodern. Even though postmodern was not as great as movement, such as modernism, they said that postmodernists value individuality, complexity, and sometimes even humor.
In the 1960's, people resisted against preconceived authorities and ideas in the whole world, those social backgrounds affected every fields of the art. In the architecture, it was called Post Modernism. Post Modernism was out of the pursuit of pure functionalism as the feature of Modernism, featured various or regionalized forms of architecture or placing symbols. The reform reached multicolored elements composed of architecture, not only in the modern architecture. This movement changed the present state of architecture strongly.
However, as the end of the structure caused by a cold war vanished the value of resistance against capitalism, Post Modernism had been forced to decline. Furthermore, because of the diversification in the information-oriented society, not only the society of the architecture but that of the general whole art, have no guidepost on present form.

MODERN ARCHITECTURE IN JAPAN

The movements of Modernism in Japan was interrupted by the rise of the military and the ultranationalism from the early Showa perio to the World War Ⅱ. After the war, during the improvement of Japanese economy in the high economic growth, the architecture which caused by importing Modernism was activated again by them
Into the Meiji era, Japan adopted the Eastern style of architecture. But at last in the Taisho era, Japan had succeeded to receive the effection of the latest Easter artistic movement like "the Art Nouveau", they had experiments of high-class artistic styles, perticulary among young architects.
.Japan had also concerned with the world-scaled artistic movement, a shift from Modernism to Post Modernism. However it was too late in Japan, it have infiltrated to Japan in 1980's. Tsukuba Center Building (Tsukuba, Ibaraki 1983) by Arata Isozaki (1931～) was the masterpiece of the architecture of Post Modernism in Japan.

MAINTENANCE AND PRESERVATION OF BUILDINGS

AN OVERVIEW OF MAINTENANCE

1.1 What is Building Maintenance?
Buildings deteriorate over time due to age, environment conditions, usage of the building, method of design, materials used for construction, the method and quality of construction, and the maintenance management of the buildings. Work has to be carried out to ensure that buildings are in a safe, healthy condition in accordance with specified standards.
Building maintenance can be defined as “work undertaken in order to keep, restore or improve every facility, i.e. every part of a building, its services and surrounds, to a currently accepted standard and to sustain the utility and value of the facility”
CONCEPT OF BUILDING MAINTENANCE
BS 3811(1972) categorized maintenance into two parts and some other sub-parts as it was found to be characterized by nature of work done (planned and unplanned maintenance), point of intervention (preventive and corrective maintenance) and time schedule (scheduled and condition-based maintenance),

Types of Maintenance

Maintenance can be categorized into two main types (BS 3811)
(i) Planned maintenance
(ii) Unplanned maintenance.
2.3.1 Planned Maintenance: - Maintenance organized and carried out with forethought, control and the use of records to a predetermined plan. This can further be subdivided into two, namely
(i) Planned preventive maintenance, and
(ii) Corrective maintenance.
(a). Planned Preventive Maintenance- Is the maintenance carried out at predetermined intervals or corresponding to prescribed criteria and intended to reduce the probability of failure or the performance degradation of an item. Preventive maintenance work needs to be carried out at scheduled intervals within the facility’s life time. This is done purposely to ensure continued operation of the facility throughout its life cycle. However, preventive maintenance work can further be subdivided into two namely,
(i) Planned Scheduled Maintenance (PSM)
(ii) Condition-Based Maintenance (CBM)
(i) Planned Scheduled Maintenance (PSM) - Is the preventive maintenance carried out to a predetermined interval of time, number of operations and mileage. This work is carried out within the expected life of the facility and with a specific number of required operations and extent of work.
(ii) Condition-Based Maintenance (CBM) - Is the preventive maintenance initiated as a result of knowledge of the condition of an item from routine or continuous monitoring. This work is carried out on the facility based on discovery of its present condition, mostly due to age, through routine or continuous checks.
(b). Corrective Maintenance- Is the maintenance carried out after a failure has occurred and intended to restore an item to a state in which it can perform its required function. This work may be necessitated where for instance defective wall needs to be re-built.

2.3.2 Unplanned Maintenance: - Is the maintenance carried out without predetermined plan. This is work resulting from unexpected break downs or damage due to external forces. For instance a
partly blown-off building roof due to rainstorm will require unplanned maintenance work to make the building continue to perform its function or be habitable to the occupants.

DESIGN CONCEPT

TYPES OF DESIGN CONCEPT

The way in which basic architectural needs are met to satisfy client, are democratically determined by the architect, using different approach, sometimes he uses certain approach unconsciously. The design behavior architecture is such that we tend to reason in three dimensional views on how the building will look like; we do this through any of the following basic approaches.

1.      ANALOGUE CONCEPT

 There are aspects of architecture that need to be ‘taught,’ particularly at the beginning levels of architectural education. At the upper levels, when students have acquired skills of architectural drawing, model-making, design, and face the prospect of leaving school and working in the architectural profession, it is time to ‘teach’ individual initiative, thinking, and action. Authority figures, such as teachers, must at this stage become mentors. Students not prepared for the degree of independence required by this work will not be prepared to practice architecture with independent conscience and sense of responsibility. There is need to learn by examples from precedent professionals by studying their works.

The analog circumvent history in other to determine or help in making decision and liberates the imagination of student in ways that can impact the primary “reality” the problem on ground concerning design, under consideration. In today’s world of rapid changes, where history is less and less reliable as a guide to the future, intellectual freedom and inventiveness of the type enabled by the analog are increasingly important. These four modes of designing; pragmatic, iconic, analogy and canonic, seem to underlie all the ways in which architectural form has been, or can be generated. An example of analogue concept reflects in the works of walter Gropius and Ludwig mies vanda rohe due to their work experience with peter brehen at the A.E.G Factory design.

Advantages Analogue concept

Ø  Its help architect to improve on their own ideas

Ø  Its create an intellectual freedom and inventiveness due to different perspectives and idea generated by analogue concept

Ø  Its improves the imagination of student, and increase the experience of student through practical works

Disadvantages of Analogue concept

Ø  Depending on the individual student, it can lead to grooming of dependent student that cannot think on their own

Ø  It tends to produce repetitive works, if the students are mediocre.

2.      CANONIC CONCEPT: this approach involve the use of grids and axis, upon which designers generate their idea, such that using the same grid and measurement can be used to generate different internal space, Geometric ratios, and geometric figures were often employed in the design of Egyptian, ancient Indian, Greek and Roman architecture. Medieval European cathedrals also incorporated symbolic geometry. Indian and Himalayan spiritual communities often constructed temples and fortifications on design plans of mandala and yantra. These grids are said to be rooted in the study of nature and the environment, it was discovered in the golden section. The unique properties of the golden section have long attracted the interest of geometers, mathematicians, and architects. Pythagoras loved the golden section and considered it one of the divine mysteries

       

THE LLONBASE 36/   BALLONART completed in 2005

ARCHITECT BEHF ZILFILTECHNER

Advantages of Canonic concept

Ø  Its provides a key to proportion in architectural designing, through it geometrical and mathematical innovation

Ø  It does not restrict designer in a the way it gives freedom of space allocation, that will in the end produce different form,

Ø  It makes use of grids and axis and that makes construction easy.

Disadvantage of Canonic concept

Ø  It discourages the need for student to learn from their environments.

3.      ICONIC CONCEPT: long before now when human being was a wanderer, man does not know how to erect shelter ,what he did was to observe animals like birds through try and error he started getting a befitting shelter for himself, human being grow as a member of a community, which his total way of life is influenced by his immediate geographical, political and tradition situations, different culture appears in different geographical location, and they have their own distinct architecture and traditions, their architectural structures are rooted from their quest to survive in that geographical location, making their structural and constructional technique different through their ability to learn from their immediate environment.

For example, the structure and construction technique of ijaw, shekiri in the south-south part of Nigeria is different from the structure of northern Nigeria. Within each culture this idea of design his repeated over time. User-participation is conceivably the most potent method of all for the recurrence of design icons.

The Bird Nest observation tower, Germany is an example of iconic conceopt

ARCHITECTS: p.karle/bulbuun

Advantages of iconic concept

Ø  It leads to testing and innovation of new construction technique

Ø  It allow intuitive thinking in the process of finding solutions to construction problems

Ø  It create a cultural significance in construction such that the way of construction reflect the tradition or way of life of people

Disadvantage of iconic concept

Ø  It tends to be repetitive

1.      PRAGMATIC CONCEPT: this approach involve the use of available material to provide shelter which was also achieved and established by tried and error, as at the primitive life of man, man has to make use of exactly what nature offers him, and he uses leaves and other natural material that he could find around to create his shelter, this concept his use when we have new discovered building material and we would like to use it to see how good it is, the after like ten years of observation we deduce if that material is actually efficient for the said purposes. After industrial revolution, the use of material really changed, due to new discoveries of new material, and after the second world war ended, the emphasis on the truth of material and rational use of material where the basis of design. for example the use of mud in northern Nigerian and in the southern part they use bamboo and timber, and this concept spreads within the localities, as it is the available and functional means of that time, but now in northern Nigeria they now have fired clay bricks, and in the southern Nigeria, they have pile foundations of timber, concrete. All of these are pragmatic approach in architectural design.

Advantages of pragmatic concept

Ø  It leads to justification and innovation of new building materials

Ø  It helps to generate new building materials through tried and error

Ø  It leads to exploration of means and natural resources

Disadvantages of pragmatic concept

Ø  It tends to be repetitive.

Large Mosque,

Djenne, Mali, built 1935 built with earth as a sustainable building

Conclusion

The above design approaches is an exercise of systematized procedures in the decision-making of design. In canonic concept procedures are mathematically-based and these lead to the generation of solutions in such variety that it almost not matters when some of them have to be eliminated. While in analogue we are sure of learning from experience of mentors, and from iconic and pragmatic approaches we learn how to observe our environment to create what we need.