ABSTRACT
Considering
the breadth, depth and intensity of influence that ICT commands barely six
hundred months after the installation of the first business computer, this
device is powerful. Apart from the capabilities of its hardware; various
software has altered every aspect of human endeavour. In the building industry,
the C++ written object-oriented CADD software (like AutoCAD) automated the
traditional graphic communication and empowered the architect to express
himself better in three dimensions. However, the introduction of Building Information
Modelling; a new CADD concept has further aggravated the potentialities of
Computer Aided Drafting and Design. With BIM the traditional master builder
role of the architect is quite possible theoretically. Power implies the
unfolding of new possibilities. Power is about people and hence has political
and sociological implications. Power must be managed in order to avoid the
domination of a political system by a single group or person. Hence, the
evolving power of CADD and its implied potentialities must be pre-emptively
managed deliberately in order to avoid an inevitable power politics among
professionals in the building industry in the nearest future. This paper
examines the implications of these and the challenge they pose for
architectural education and practice in the twenty first century.
Key
Words:
CADD, Management, Power, Technology, Values.
INTRODUCTION.
Technology has
always intrinsically been an agent of societal change. Sometimes those changes
are epochal due to their revolutionary dimensions. Considering the breadth,
depth and intensity of influence that ICT commands barely six hundred months
after the installation of the first business computer in Kentucky
TECHNOLOGY.
that apply
organised knowledge has been influenced by the forces of the products of
organised knowledge in form of ICT.
TECHNOLOGICAL POSSIBILITIES OR
SUSTAINABILITY?
Technology
is not exclusively a modern phenomenon; neither is the call for technology to
be directed to what can “…be regarded as socially useful ends”. (Gummet and
Johnston, 1979:9) From time immemorial, the concept of political power has
always been closely knit with technology. Societies have always had to choose
between technological proliferation, economic benefits and human welfare. In
modern times, these calls echo in the campaign for appropriate technology,
Quality function deployment, lean, sustainable development and recently, the
Millennium Development Goals. It has
always been a choice between power or people extremes. However, sustainability
is the mid-line of balance.
Although the
original idea of sustainability was applied to ecological issues, it has been
extended to almost all areas of human endeavour. Brundtland Commission quoted
by Dalal-Clayton (2003) defined sustainability as “a process of change in which
the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of
technological development, and institutional change are all in harmony and
enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and
aspirations”. The increasing power,
resourcefulness, potentialities and scope of influence of ICT calls for a pre-emptive
management of this technology for a sustainable professional milieu in the
building industry.
THE TECHNOLOGY OF CADD AND BIM.
In the
building industry, the relevance of computer technology to architecture became
more direct with the advent of Computer Aided Drafting and Design (CADD)
technology. The building industry in general and architecture in particular which
evolved from on-site design in scale 1:1 to the drawing board communicates building construction information through traditional
graphic drawings with notes, schedules and specifications. These drawings are a
composition of analogues in form of conventional symbols that are graphic
abstractions of objects in reality.
Earlier CADD
technology based on C++ written object-oriented software (like AutoCAD) used a
general concept of objects to create basic drawing symbols such as lines and
arcs. Thus, it merely automated the process of traditional draughtsmanship. “Using
the same drawing legacy, a replica of what could have been drawn by hand was
created using the computer as a drafting system. This makes AutoCAD drawings a
mere collection of basic drawing primitives”. (Ibrahim M. et al 2003). In spite
of its many advantages (which include ability to rapidly generate 3D images
from different points of views, the possibility of creating motion simulation
and walk-through animations as well as the ability to readily move the
observer’s station point to any coordinate with the resulting view immediately
generated) earlier CADD software were able to handle and manage information
about a building only on a limited basis.
The
introduction of a new CADD concept; Building Information Model (BIM) has
created even greater possibilities. The BIM generation of CADD systems,
introduced a new concept of objects in the cyberspace. These objects have an
equivalent physical meaning to real world objects, and provide an abstract
computer representation of the physical world that is convenient for architects
(Ruppel, Meissner, and Bernd M 1993). Just like in word processing software,
text and the grammatical implications of their relative positions are
programmed to ‘see’ themselves as text and query wrong positioning, a door in a
BIM software ‘knows’ what it is, how to behave as the elements they represent
and how to interact with other elements in the building represented by other
BIM entities. BIM stores and manages object information as databases which
describe complete details about the object being represented like geometry,
materials, specifications, code requirements, assembly procedure, price,
manufacturer, vendor and any other related data associated with how the object
is actually used. Any changes done to the building database will simultaneously
be reflected in the entire set of documents the architect is responsible for:
plans, elevations, sections, schedules, and bill of materials”. (Ibrahim Magdy
et al 2003).
New
developments in BIM research will create new capabilities which should include
all types of engineering analysis. “…A beam as an object should set its depth
according to the span it covers, and change accordingly as the span changes.
Although such intelligent behaviour has not been implemented yet in current CAD
programs, it is this type of development that will be expected in the future. Another
example, a door object should set its fire rating automatically according to
the room where it belongs depending on its knowledge of this room’s function
and the code requirements for this function. Theoretically, this is an
achievable task, and should enhance quality control in all phases of the
project”. (Ibrahim M. et al 2003).
Researches
towards future developments are even very ambitious. These developments are
challenging the nature of design information and the very way they had been
stored and used in the past especially as the fourth dimension of time is added
to BIM capabilities. “In 4D, BIM will provide object- and process-oriented
building information from project drawings to decommissioning continuously over
time. As just one example, data generated during design and construction will
be reused and adapted throughout the life of a building to guide maintenance
and repair activities”.(Hall, Dennis
2006) These developments will definitely change the terrain of the building
industry in the years to come wherein roles must inevitably be re-defined.
POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR THE
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY.
- The power and potentials of CADD
especially, the paradigm shift in accepting almost instantaneous feedback
of digital models has made the traditional master builder role of the
architect quite possible theoretically.
- Since the building design is
originated by the architect, further development of BIM will definitely intensify
power concentration in the hands of the architect as his ability to give
complete building information without resort to other professionals in the
building industry increases. This calls for pre-emptive and deliberate
power management in the building industry in order to avoid an inevitable
power politics among professionals in the nearest future.
- Since every professional in the
building industry are consumers of software, it presents a situation where
absolute power concentration resides in the software producers who create
the cyber environment which becomes the limits of what the professionals
can do. This further presents a possibility of creating software that can
even bypass the architect. This
possibility exists as a potentiality.
POWER MANAGEMENT.
Power
concentration creates a situation that calls for urgent negotiation,
resistance, or attack. Where all these are not available as options or are
futile, then passive or active submission occurs. The potentialities in the
building industry created by software calls for inter disciplinary round table
forum to discuss new professional ethics, distribution of authority and
responsibilities etc in the face of new possibilities. Needless to say that
there is need for collaboration.
There seem
to be two available options for professionals in the building industry in the
current milieu: firstly, the option of creative collaboration that is committed
to balancing between professional survival and current expediency towards
achieving optimum service delivery and secondly, the option of ‘individual’ political
power play among professionals in the building industry towards preserving the
political and economic interest of each profession. The option of controlling
the influx of BIM into the professional climate of the Nigerian building
industry is unrealistic, defeatist but at best posthumous in a rapidly
globalising industry.
In order to
effectively manage the economy of power created in the building industry by
software development, certain questions must be answered some of which are:
(i)
What
is the current level of patronage of BIM, and what is its performance like?
There is evidence that
government establishment and the private sector are adopting CADD as a baseline
of professional practice. However, there is an increased preference for BIM
software like ArchiCAD, Vector works, Architectural desktop…in the private
sector of the Nigerian building industry. There is need for research into how
effective the adoption of these software has been in the Nigerian context.
(ii)
Who
will be responsible for the management of BIM?
Should
government be responsible for the management of the adoption of BIM of future
software development or should it be an entirely stakeholders affair? There is
need for collaboration on both levels through a bottom-up approach that would
involve round table discussions between representatives of various professional
institutes as well as consortia and partnerships that are on the cutting edge
of digitalised practice as well as clients and contractors. This should
facilitate the adoption of indigenously generated systems and standards that
are relevant to our professional, socio-economic, cultural and political
realities. The government can then adopt and enforce such bottom-up generated policies.
Proactive collaboration between architects in practice and the architectural
intelligentsia should enhance and enrich the process.
(iii)
How
will the industry need to change to accommodate BIM?
We should not just
adopt the successful systems of the so-called developed countries. There is
need to contextualise BIM to the peculiarities of Nigerian building industry
and the society. Nyerere quoted by Thompson (1981) argued that the “…first
problem we have not solved is that of building sufficient self-confidence to
refuse what we regard as the world’s best… and to choose instead the most
appropriate for our conditions”. Whitaker (1970:12) suggested six possible
directions of societal change that can take place in the face of the agents of
modernisation:
a)
Total rejection of
modernity and total retention of tradition.
b)
Total acceptance of
modernity and total displacement of tradition.
c)
Partial acceptance of
modernity and partial retention of tradition.
d)
Partial rejection of
modernity and total retention of tradition.
e)
Total acceptance of
modernity and partial displacement of tradition.
f)
Total acceptance of
modernity and total retention of tradition.
Essentially, no one can
predict the details of what the effect of BIM adoption will be, but there is
need for a proactive, collaborative and pre-emptive action that will eliminate
unnecessary crisis.
POLITICAL ETHICS AND VALUES.
Power
implies the unfolding of new possibilities. “Politics is about power. Power is
about people...”(Margarch 1979:vii) and
hence has political and sociological implications. The popular adage that
blames power as an agent of corruption is not entirely accurate. Power does not
corrupt. Absolute power does not corrupt absolutely. If it does, then God (who
has absolute power) must be the most corrupt being in the universe. This is
absolutely contrary even to the most bizarre concept of God. Power is only a
toll that increases the economy of possibilities available to those who posses
power. Every tool and indeed, power as a tool is ethically and morally neutral.
It merely takes on the character and values of its operator. Hence, political
values are crucial to the management of the changes that software development
poses to the Nigerian Construction industry. Responsibility, accountability and
commitment to the sustainability of the built environment among other values
are very crucial.
IMPLICATIONS
FOR ARCHITECTURE EDUCATION.
Architecture education ought to prepare students that are industrially
and socially relevant. If it fails to do
this, it will reduce personnel efficiency and the macroeconomic contribution of
architecture to national economy. In this regard, the economical prudence of
architectural education will be questioned.
The World Bank technique of cost-benefit analysis of educational investment
considers “internal and external efficiency” of schools as a quantitative
indicator of educational output. External efficiency is judged by the balance
between social costs and social benefits while internal efficiency is judged by
the balance between input and output within specific educational system or
institution. Psacharopoulos G. and Woodhall M. (1997:23)
stated that; “More specifically, the external efficiency of schools may be
judged by how well schools prepare pupils and students for their roles in
society….a school that was extremely efficient in developing skills and
attitudes that are not highly valued in the society as a whole…would be judged
to be…externally inefficient.”
These have implications at two levels. The architecture student of today
must be conscious of his social responsibility in the midst of changing and
developing technologies that empower him more than ever before. However, the
concept of society is going beyond the geographical concept. The globalised
business environment into which the student architect will enter may require
him to work for clients that are geographically remote to him. Secondly, the
student must be trained in the use of the latest relevant technologies. These
pose a challenge of curriculum development for architectural education that
will integrate current industry developments. Rather than reviewing the
curriculum in response to rapid changes, a percentage of the curriculum can be
allotted to interaction with industry based resource persons who are on the
cutting edge of current practice.
Various limiting factors exist. The problem of acquisition of hardware
and software due to exorbitant cost, the attitude of teachers to ICT and their
level of proficiency in the software. Teachers should not be viewed, even if
inadvertently, with the techno-induced mind-set that sees workers like
dispensing machines or equipment on a production line where a job request
is passed in and a predictable result within a predictable time comes out. Thomas,
George F. (1978) described this concept when he stated that; “In the one
perspective, …workers are expected to behave like cogs in a machine, that is,
as essentially unthinking parts or elements in the total productive system,…” A
teacher is a human being. He may “…to view innovation with suspicion to cling
to the familiar ways which have seen him through his many difficulties, to
resent any extra work which may be required of him probably without extra
remuneration and to see proposals for change as a criticism of what he has been
doing”.( Thompson 2001:161)
The cultural
dimension of the effect of ICT on schools in general and architecture schools
in particular is another challenge. Old ways of schooling will gradually be
eroded by ICT revolution. Traditionally, “successful schooling requires one to
adhere to a prescribed set of cultural content delivered through a narrowly
defined curriculum. This traditional and narrowly defined curriculum is
delivered to the individual by instructors who are responsible for inculcating the
student with a set of norms that perpetuates the relationships among groups in
the social system” (Bowles and Gintis, 1976). However, Carolan, (2001:11)
highlights how this culture is being upset. “An unexpected by-product of this
technological revolution has been the emergence of a generation of students
weaned on multidimensional, interactive media sources, a generation whose
understanding and expectations of the world differ profoundly from that of the
generations preceding them. Examining the relationship between these
generations, represented by the tensions among teachers, students, and content,
will provide much insight into the way in which technology is impacting our
larger structures.”
Should the traditional manual draughtsmanship be abolished in
architecture schools? This is a very sensitive issue that requires a long range
anticipation of the trends of the current ICT craze. Input devices that
replicate the human hand like modified light pens could be adopted for now
until the implications of the monopoly of the mouse are fully understood. Such
a decision cannot be based on notions but on informed anticipation.
CONCLUSION.
The ongoing
revolution in the building industry due to aggressive software development is
potentially crisis laden. This crisis which is socio-economic, political and
cultural in nature can be managed. The sustainability of the built environment
of tomorrow is dependent on the actions or inactions of current professionals.
Professional empowerment should be directed towards social benefits. This calls
for proactive and collaborative action among stakeholders.
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